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The study of business ethics and its implications for different stakeholders have seen tremendous growth in the past few decades. There has also been a rise in the use and development of codes of ethics and announcements for ethical practices by many firms; however companies are still criticized for their unethical practices at different levels (Papers4you.com, 2006). Business ethics, according to the literature has been entrenched with the philosophical details of Ethics (Trevino & Nelson, 1999). Ethics has been defined as ‘the activity of examining the moral standards of a society, and asking how these standards apply to ones life and whether these standards are reasonable’ (Velasquez, 1998; p. 11).

The literature on business ethics is divided on its views about the motivation and reason for businesses to have an ethical dimension. Drawing upon Harrison (2001), there are two major schools of thoughts, firstly those who suggest that firms are profit generating institutions and therefore business ethics is yet another way to attract customers, secondly those who support corporate conscience and intrinsic motivation for the adoption of business ethics.

Business ethics has been considered very subjective in nature and according to Paul (2001) is considered a function of time and culture. It has been established that with the passage of time business ethics have evolved and also that the cultural values and norms drive business ethics within national and regional boundaries. One of the major studies regarding the national values has been conducted by Hofstede (1983). According to this research, which was only based on four indicators i.e. individualism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity, there is a great deal of differences among values across different nations and consequently the business ethics. Globalization combined with standardization has made businesses financially efficient but at the same time poses questions regarding the standardized codes of business ethics across national boundaries.

Vinten (1991) has divided the business ethical issues at different levels i.e. international business, domestic business and professional ethics. At the international level ethical issues include free-masonry and socialism versus capitalism; at domestic level these include religious dimensions, social marketing and ethical education; and lastly at the individual level these include bribery, corruption and data protection (Papers4you.com, 2006).

There are many reasons and criticisms for the failure of adoption of ethics in the business world. Firstly, the concept is considered to be overly theoretical and it also negates the basic purpose of any business i.e. to create shareholder’s wealth. Secondly, it has lack of direction and unanimity across different cultures and academic groups. Lastly, it has many inherent unresolved dichotomies that according to Sternberg (1994) make it a case of rejected relativism.

References:

Harrison, J. (2001), Ethics for Australian Business, Prentice-Hall, French’s Forest

Hofstede, G. (1983), The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.75-89

Papers For You (2006) “S/B/92. What distinguishes ethical from unethical business activity and how significant are the principles of business ethics in modern business?”, Available from http://www.coursework4you.co.uk/sprtbus21.htm [17/06/2006]

Papers For You (2006) “S/B/49. ‘Should businesses strive to be ethical?’ Critically Discuss”, Available from Papers4you.com [18/06/2006]

Paul, S. (2001), Cultural and Business Ethics, Cross Cultural Management: An international Journal, Volume 8 No. 1, pp 22-35

Sternberg, E. (1994), Relativism rejected: the possibility of transnational business ethics, in Hoffman, W.M., Kamm, J.B., Frederick, R.E., Petry, E.S. Jr (Eds), National Conference on Business Ethics. Proceedings from the 9th Conference on Business Ethics Sponsored by the Centre for Business Ethics at Bentley College, Quorum Books, New York, NY, pp.143-50

Trevino, L.K., Nelson, K.A. (1999), Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk about How to Do It Right, 2nd ed., J. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY

Velasquez, M.G. (1998), Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

Vinten, G. (1991), Business Ethics: Busybody or Corporate Conscience?, Managerial Auditing Journal, Volume 5, Number 2, pp. 123-144

After 8 failed years and decades of the “trickle down” theory’s failure to produce anything more than a giant chasm between the nations rich and it’s poor, the Republicans have the audacity to insist on more tax breaks for the wealthy. If you cut the wealthy’s taxes jobs will come. But what if they are right?

Having given a lot of thought to the current economic crisis and wanting to continue President Obama’s spirit of inclusion and reaching across party lines, I have come up with a way that the wealthy of America, and the world, could once and for all prove their patriotism and end the era of over taxation forever!

It has been known for some time that the richest 1% of Americans possess more wealth than 90% of the rest of us combined. As a true believer in capitalism, I suggest that the wealthiest 1% of the America unite, and prove the Trickle down theory once and for all. Forget government intervention and bailouts. The wealthy of the world should get together and make the following offer: In exchange for a government guarantee of lower tax rates on future profits, they should pledge roughly one tenth of the $37+ TRILLION dollars that Merrill lynch claims “high net worth individuals” controlled as of 2006. Just think what kind of progress the economy could make with a cash infusion of 3.7 TRILLION dollars!

How many good paying jobs could be created with $3.7 trillion dollars? With the best and brightest in the business world, instead of the government, creating them? How many bridges could be built? How many roads repaired? Could we actually improve on the greatest country in the world? A job for everyone who wants and needs one? Make that happen and who would dare oppose tax breaks for the rich again? And all for only one tenth of your portfolio’s?

Show us your patriotism in our time of need. Break open those rusty vaults and rejoice in the power of capitalism while we still can! The opportunity is now, before the sky completely falls and all capitalist and Conservatives are sent into the wilderness. As a would-be believer in both I beseech you, Act NOW!



I doubt this could ever happen however. It goes against the very fiber of their being wealthy. The key to wealth building is NOT spending. Buy low, sell high and never spend unless you have to. This is the sad truth of the “trickle down theory” and every out of work, underemployed person living far under the “high net worth individuals” up on the hill knows, is, that the object of the rich is to get and be rich. At any cost. Without responsibility.

“If you were unaware of the severity of wealth distribution inequities, then you are probably in for an even bigger surprise to learn that the rate, at which the economic elite are getting richer, is simply astounding.

Statistics published in Forbes magazine’s annual survey of America’s billionaires expose this little known but shocking reality. In 1982 there were 13 billionaires; in 1983….15; in 1984….12; in 1985….13; in 1986….26; in 1987….49. Note carefully that prior to 1986 the number of American billionaires had averaged around 13. Then the Reagan administration drastically altered the wealth distribution patterns by introducing new tax legislation favoring the top 1%. In 1986 the number of billionaires DOUBLED, and by 1987 the number of billionaires had virtually QUADRUPLED to 49!! By 1988, there were 68 individuals or families that each had net wealth in excess of $1,000,000,000. By 1989, the number had risen precipitously to 82. And by 1990, the Forbes survey reported the staggering total of 99!! With favorable tax laws in place, the super rich can enjoy bonanza years even during recessions!! The tax laws that allowed this to happen are still in place, and will remain in place till enough people get sufficiently concerned to insist that they be changed. “

Excerpted from the electronic book: Feudalism … Alias American Capitalism

Honesty

In general, the handwriting of honest people has clarity, simplicity and a firm, straight base line. You can see this by taking a ruler and placing it under the middle-zone letters-they are all equidistant from the ruler. When the base line is straight (and certain other factors are not present), we find an individual who does not go to pieces if something unexpected occurs. He is composed, not easily upset, straight thinking, and honest.

The more open the ovals are, the more talkative the writer is. When these letters are a regular feature of someone’s writing, he can be said to be both open and honest. However, if there were no oval letters closed, it would be best not to tell the writer any secrets-he may have difficulty keeping them.

If the body of the writing is similar to that of the signature, we see an essentially honest and straightforward individual-one that is not trying to impress others or play a false part. When the signature varies from the body of the writing, graphologists first analyze the body of the writing, to discover what the writer really is. Then they check that against the signature to get an impression of the writer’s persona-the role he is trying to play.

Dishonesty

Although there are many indicators of dishonesty, which can be identified through one’s handwriting, graphologists always rely upon three signs.

*The sinuous base line.

He is inconsistent, prey to mood swings. It is difficult for him to hold a job or perform any function-requiring steadiness.

*Oval shaped letters, which are open at the bottom). This reflects deceitfulness and hypocrisy.

*Figures that can be mistaken for others, reveals lack of clarity in money matters.

When any one of these three signs are found in one’s writing, a question mark arises to the graphologist concerning the writer’s veracity. Two signs are considered as evidence.

It must be pointed out that the professional graphologist only relies upon these factors when:

a) they are significantly repeated

and

b) this is the writer’s natural handwriting.

A person’s illegible signature does not admit of any complimentary interpretation. For how much trust can be placed in a document if the signature that is to prove the signer’s determination to carry out his promises cannot be deciphered? In a sense, an illegible signature annuls the document it pretends to put in force.

In contrast, the illegible hand of doctors, for instance, is part of their professional pride and secretiveness; they do not want the layman to understand their notes obviously reserved for other doctors or pharmacists. As this is not the doctor’s natural handwriting, it certainly is not an indicator of dishonesty; it is to protect his patient.

Psychopathology in Handwriting

The Habitual Liar

The technique of lying, it seems, has at least three ways of achieving its ends. In the liar’s presentation of the story,

l. one (essential) part is simply left out;

2. one (essential) part is left out and a freely invented part is substituted for it;

3. one (essential) part is left out and the gap is filled with chitchat, or meaningless or vague tales. In all three ways, the liar tries carefully not to appear as such; his story and approach must not arouse suspicion.

(Essentially, the habitual liar, as a social type, is unwilling to communicate frankly; he will not express himself without indirection or hesitation.) In writing, the liar’s techniques remain the same. While the first letters of words look clear and often are written with great care (to deceive us and to draw our attention away from that part of the word where the lie “resides”), the body of the word behind that first letter is,

1. Incomplete: one or more letters are left out (“ad” instead of “and,” “Thanki” instead of “Thanking,” “neived” instead of “received,” “sicenly” instead of “sin¬cerely”),

or

2. One or several letters are replaced by letters that do not belong there (“eacl” instead of “each,” “mucl” instead of “much,” “costme” instead of “continue”),

or

3. One letter is left out and instead there is a thread (“fr-” instead of’ “from,”) or something that looks like a letter but is not (“ar-y” instead of “army”).

The above samples are taken from one message, written by a habitual liar.

The Pathological Liar

These two seemingly different handwritings were written by one person, a pathological liar. She executed this writing for the doctor who had her under his care, in order to show “how clever she was.” From the standpoint of graphology, these handwritings are identical with the exception of the slant; neither contains a basic characteristic that the other lacks.

The pathological liar, to be sure, is not merely a person who tells many lies. He is almost completely identified with the false roles he unconsciously assumes. Consequently, he will characteristically show two or more different styles of writing, rather than merely the slips of the “habitual liar.” Such shifting of style is the clue to pathology, which the graphologist can discover.

 

If you would like to view the images to this article, please send a blank email to engraph@netvision.net.il