Tube Traffic Finance

Archive for the ‘Conservation Resources’ Category

I.       INTRODUCTION

The natural environment is now regarded by many as being at risk from the harmful influence of industrialization and human activities, hence the urgent need for its protection from further harm and depletion. The protection requires:

a.       Reduction, control and elimination of existing causes of damage to the environment

b.       The Prevention of additional forms of damage

c.       The preservation and natural use of the environment

 The importance of forest cannot be over emphasized. The forest produces both tangible and intangible benefits. The tangible benefits are timber and non-timber product meant for domestic use and export. Intangible benefits include control of erratic rainfall, climatic stability, soil improvement, agricultural productivity and windbreaks.

 The Holy Bible says “…for the tree of the field is man’s life” [Deuteronomy 20:19, King James Version]. Therefore, to have a forest is a blessing.

 Indira Ghandhi, Prime Minister of India also said, “When the last tree dies, the last man dies”.

 Today, one of Ghana’s principal environmental problems confronting both public and private sectors of the society is deforestation.

It is true that deforestation is not limited to one geographic region or one set of culture, instead is a shared problem of the international community.  Virtually in every country, people are destroying valuable forests either for the purpose of living or trade. The questions this paper attempts to answer include: What role is Ghana playing domestically to rescue deforestation which is occurring around the world at such an unprecedented pace? What strategies can be used to reverse the trend?

 II.      DEFORESTATION TREND IN GHANA

For various reasons, such as logging and clearing of forests for cash crops cultivation, the rainforest in Ghana has been decreasing rapidly and significantly. Ghana’s forest area is decreasing gradually from 7,447,854 hectares in 1990, to 6,093,906 hectares in 2000 and 5,516, 932 hectares in 2005. The deforestation rate from 1990 to 2000 was 18.2% giving a deforestation rate of about 1.8% per year.

 The impact of deforestation is widespread, affecting the livelihoods of local people, disrupting important environmental functions and severely destroying the original forest ecosystem. There is a serious concern in  Ghana about climatic change, soil erosion and large-scale desertification. Since independence in 1957, the exploitation of timber for commercial purposes has been part of the Ghanaian economy. It was not until the start of the Economic Reform Programme (ERP) in 1981 that deforestation has become a serious concern for the governments and private organizations. Today, timber is Ghana’s third most important export commodity after cocoa and minerals. Timber exports have increased in terms of volume and revenue since the introduction of ERP, rising from $16 millions in 1983 to 100 millions in 1988. Ghana’s total exports of timber and wood products for the first nine months of 2008 increased to 430,100m³, a 7.7% rise when compared to the same period in 2007. The corresponding total revenue for the first three quarters also increased 4.2% to EUR144.42 million in 2008, up from EUR135.55 million in 2007. But, as the volume and value of timber exports increase, deforestation also increases at the same rate with other related consequences. Ghana’s tropical forest area is now just 25 percent of its original size. The main causes of deforestation in Ghana are:

Timber logging (cutting of the rain forest); Wrong and primitive agricultural practices in forest areas; Illegal Chain Saw Operation Urban and industrial expansion and their reliance on forest products; Road and railway constructions; Exploitation for fuel-wood and non-timber forest products Annual bushfires; Surface and deep mining of gold, diamonds and other minerals.

 III.     IMPACT OF DEFORESTATION

This can be looked at from two perspectives: Impact on the natural environment and impact on sustainabledevelopment

 The impact of deforestation on the natural environment are numerous,  some of which are reversible whilst others are not. In summary, the notable effects in Ghana include:

Soil erosion and soil nutrients depletion Climate change with extreme weather conditions Flooding and landslides Drying up of streams and rivers/ shortage of fresh water Loss of wildlife habitat Forest areas changing into Savanna /desertification

The continuous loss of forest is indeed having serious detrimental effect on sustainable development. The key impacts are:

Increasing inability of the forest to meet the demand for wood and wood products; Food insecurity; Poverty, disease and death.

 Sustainable development involves judicious use of a nation’s resources to meet the needs of its people in a manner that is in harmony with the physical environment. The current trend of deforestation, if not reversed now, will  cause not only the extinction of thousands of animal and plant species but also lead to a significant change in the country’s development pattern and progress.

 IV.     STRATEGIES FOR SOLVING GHANA’S DEFORESTATION PROBLEM

Until the late 1980s, efforts to resolve deforestation problem, was largely cosmetic, ad hoc and lacked a strategic overview of the impact of  environmental decisions and actions on different natural and socio-economic environments. Prior to 1994 various governmental bodies existed to deal with protection and management of particular aspects of the environment including the forests. These bodies operated, in most cases, in total absence of co-ordination of their efforts and without any effective collaboration. This caused traditional institutional problem like duplication of monitoring, overlap in international support efforts, and problems of enforcement of regulations. Most of these bodies were also inadequately equipped to handle their mandates. This is valid both in the sense of available resources for  environmental impact assessment and in the sense of  trained staff, capable of making good environmental judgments.

 Recommended Strategies:

Increasing population leads to increasing demand on forest resources, hence conservation of forest resources is required in the following areas:

Control of removal of forest resources (legal and institutional control); Land use classification should be pursued and land earmarked for forestry should be maintained; Marginal lands which are not suitable for agriculture could be reforested and put under effective and sustainable management; To find or develop substitutes for tangible forest produce; Forest reserves and tree growing/reforestation programmes should be pursued vigorously.

 V.      MECHANISMS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES

The following mechanisms for implementation of strategies are recommended:

1.       Functional Legislation and Coordination of Activities  

There are more laws governing forests in Ghana than any other sector of the environmental. The instruments include: Environmental Protecting Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490); Trees and Timber (Amendment) Act, 1994 (Act 493);

Forestry Commission Act, 1999 (Act 571); Forest Protecting (Amendment) Act 2002, (Act 624); Forest Plantation Development Fund Act, 2000, (Act 583) Control and Prevention of Bushfires Act, 1990; Timber Operations Act; Timber Resources Management Regulations Act, 1998; Timber Industry and Ghana Timber Marketing Board Act, 1977. There is the need for codification of these laws and legislative bodies which deal directly with deforestation problems and their activities should be coordinated in order to enhance cooperation and reduce duplication and conflict. The laws regarding our forest conservation should be strictly enforced with exemplary punitive and deterrent penalties.

2.     Forestry Policy

The state is, under Article 36(9) of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana, enjoined to take appropriate measures needed to protect and safeguard the natural environment for posterity and seek cooperation with other states and bodies for the purpose of protecting the wider international environment for mankind. In the light of this constitutional provision, there is the need for a clear cut national policy on forest conservation and deforestation. The Ministries concerned with forestry and other stake holders should come together and draw an effective short, medium and long-term forestry policy for Ghana. The policy should vigorously address the following:

Dissemination of deforestation related information and education; Research activities in deforestation; Management of forest resources; Monitoring programmes and international co-operation in forest management; Common approach to regional and global deforestation; Implementation of forestry policies.

 In the international sphere, Ghana needs to seriously observe its obligations under Conventions to which it is a party, such as the International Timber Agreement and the African Convention on Nature and Natural Resources (1969). Ghana should also give consent by ratifying other instruments related to protection of the forests and their resources.

3.     Promotion and enhancement of the roles of institutions, governmental and non governmental organizations

There is the need to coordinate and promote the activities of governmental and non-governmental organizations involved with the ecological crises of deforestation. The bodies could includes: The parliamentary committee on agriculture, nutrition, forestry, conservation and rural development; Friends of Earth Ghana; Green Earth Organization; Ghana Agricultural Workers Union; Ghana Timber Marketing Board; Evergreen Club of Ghana; University Research Centers; Centre for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development (CERES).

      4.       Enforcement of Forestry Laws

The strict regulation of timber concessions, chain saw operation, mining activities, agricultural and commercial logging activities should be strictly adhered to and enforced with deterrent punitive measures. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) should enforce the Environmental Assessment Regulations 19991 L.I. 1652. This legislation specifies that “It is an offence to start a project/development without an Environmental Permit”. The EPA has in pursuit of this legislation issued a publication: “Environmental Impact Assessment Requirements in Ghana: The Pathfinder to Sustainable Development”. The public must be educated on the contents of this publication and other related laws before their enforcement.

 Industries, Non-governmental Organizations (NGO’s), Inter-governmental Organizations (IGO’s), farmers groups and the general citizenry whose activities directly cause deforestation should be educated and encouraged to carry out reforestation and tree planting activities. An annual national tree-planting day should be set aside for the whole nation to plant trees.

 The establishment of a Ghana Biodiversity Data Management System (GBDMS) should also greatly help to respond to issues relating to deforestation and other related initiatives on biodiversity. There should be activities to recycle forest products and to find alternatives to forest products.

 One of the main causes of deforestation in Ghana is the use of trees and plants for fuel and energy. The Energy Commission should be made to work on alternatives to wood-fuel and make available in forest areas cheaper energy sources. Example is the use of gas which is also gradually becoming unavailable and expensive. The completion of the West African gas pipelines may go a long way to solve some of these problems. Urban and rural electrification programme should be pursued vigorously.

 The political will is very essential in the control of deforestation. Formation of Green parties in Ghana and also encouragement of political parties to include “Green Agenda” in their party manifestos will bring into power politicians who are environmentally sensitive.

 VI.     CONCLUSION

Sustainable development involves the judicious use of the world’s resources to meet man’s needs in a manner that is in harmony with the physical environment. If this physical environment is allowed to be destroyed through deforestation, then real development will come to a tragic end and posterity will judge us all. Every effort should be made to stop or control the vanishing forest because “when the last tree dies the last man dies” It is provided in Article 41(k) of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana that: “it shall be the duty of each citizen to protect and safeguard the environment”.

History

Native Americans

Archeological evidence shows that humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10,000 BC. The first settlers were Paleo-Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools. The hunter-gatherers of the Archaic period, which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC, used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts. The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi-permanent villages and horticulture, between 1000 BC and 1500 AD. Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles, burial mounds, pipes, bows and arrows, and ornaments.

Map of the park and its facilities

Historical records show that the earliest known inhabitants of the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin, which includes Cherry Springs State Park, were the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks. They were a matriarchal society that lived in large long houses in stockaded villages. Decimated by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois, by 1675 they had died out, moved away, or been assimilated into other tribes. Another name for the tribe is “Susquehanna”, and both the river and the Susquehannock State Forest which almost completely surrounds the park are named for them.

After the departure of the Susquehannocks, the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois, who lived in long houses, primarily in what is now upstate New York, and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers. The Seneca, members of the Iroquois Confederacy, hunted in the area of what is now Cherry Springs State Park. Their nearest villages were 51 miles (82 km) to the northeast at modern Painted Post, New York, and 43 miles (69 km) to the southeast at what is now Lock Haven, Pennsylvania. The Seneca had temporary hunting camps to the east in the area of Pine Creek Gorge. To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks, the Iroquois also encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed, including the Lenape (or Delaware) and Shawnee.

The Seneca allowed very few travelers to pass through the area and kept non-native settlement to a minimum. The French and Indian War (17541763) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin, and more departed after the American Revolutionary War (17751783). The United States acquired the Last Purchase, including what is now Cherry Springs State Park, from the Iroquois in the second Treaty of Fort Stanwix in October 1784. In the years that followed, Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania.

Pioneers and lumber

Potter County was formed from part of Lycoming County on March 26, 1804, but the difficult terrain and thick old-growth forest prevented the new county from being settled by European-Americans until 1808. Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682, up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods: more than 31,000 square miles (80,000 km2) of Eastern White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, and a mix of hardwoods. The forests in and near the three original counties, Philadelphia, Bucks, and Chester, were the first to be harvested, as the early settlers used the readily available timber and cleared land for agriculture. By the time of the American Revolution, logging had reached the interior and mountainous regions, and became a leading industry in Pennsylvania. Trees furnished fuel to heat homes, tannin for the state’s many tanneries, and wood for construction, furniture, and barrel making. Large areas of forest were harvested by colliers to fire iron furnaces. Rifle stocks and shingles were made from Pennsylvania timber, as were a wide variety of household utensils, and the first Conestoga wagons.

The CCC built this replica of the Cherry Springs Hotel, the tavern built by Jonathan Edgcomb in 1818.

The area surrounding Cherry Springs State Park has been a wilderness for much of its history. A bridle path was cut through the woods in 18061807, and was widened to accommodate wagons in 1812. (Modern Pennsylvania Route 44, which passes through the park, follows the course of this path between Jersey Shore and Coudersport.) In 1818 the Ceres Land Company, which owned much of the land in Potter County and sought to open the area to settlement, hired an early settler, Jonathan Edgcomb, to build a tavern or hotel for travelers at the site of the park. The hotel was in a very remote location 16 miles (26 km) south of Coudersport, and its visitors were few, occasional wandering travelers or Native Americans.

Edgcomb and his wife received 100 acres (40 ha) of land in exchange for building the hotel and running it for three years. When the contract expired in 1821, they sold their land and left the area, but the hotel and land that Edgcomb had cleared became known as “Edgcomb’s Clearing”. The Jersey Shore and Coudersport Turnpike was constructed along the wagon path between 1825 and 1834, and tolls were collected for travel on the road until 1860. The park is in West Branch Township, which was incorporated from Eulalia Township in 1856. A post office was opened at Edgcomb’s Clearing in 1873; the locals petitioned the United States Post Office to change the name to “Cherryville”, for a nearby group of Black Cherry trees. However, since there was already a Cherryville, Pennsylvania, post office in Lehigh Township in Northampton County, the name “Cherry Spring” was chosen as a compromise. In time an “s” was added, hence the name “Cherry Springs”. There are also at least two springs in the park.

In 1874 a new, larger hotel was built on the other side of the road from the original tavern. It provided accommodations for wealthy summer visitors from Coudersport. This part of Potter County became known for an abundance of game and fish, and attracted hunters and anglers who also stayed at the Cherry Springs Hotel. This era as a “sportsmen paradise” was not to last, as the more profitable lumber industry came to West Branch and surrounding townships, which were home to “some of the tallest, straightest timber left standing” along the East Coast of the United States.

When lumbermen reached the Cherry Springs area in the late 1880s, Eastern White Pine and Eastern Hemlock covered the surrounding mountains. Lumberjacks harvested the trees and sent them down the creeks to the West Branch Susquehanna River to the Susquehanna Boom and sawmills at Williamsport. Clearcutting allowed silt to choke the streams, and nothing was left except the dried-out tree tops, which became a fire hazard. As a result, large swaths of land burned and were left barren, and much of the central part of the state became known as the “Pennsylvania Desert”. The Cherry Springs Hotel itself burned in 1897 and the property was abandoned.

Civilian Conservation Corps

As the timber was exhausted and the land burned, many companies simply abandoned their holdings. In 1897 the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed legislation which authorized the purchase of “unseated lands for forest reservations” and the first Pennsylvania state forest lands were acquired the following year. The first land for the Susquehannock State Forest was acquired in 1901; the cost for the major acquisitions was an average of $2.50 per acre ($6.18 per ha). This is roughly equivalent to $43 per acre ($107 per ha) in 2010 terms. As of 2003, the Susquehannock State Forest, which almost entirely surrounds the park, covered 265,000 acres (107,000 ha), chiefly in Potter County with small tracts in Clinton and McKean counties.

 

“The largest and most unique of the CCC-built picnic pavilions” in Pennsylvania was constructed in 1939.

Top: highway side; bottom: Astronomy Field side.

The park traces its existence back to 1922, when the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry established three scenic areas in state forests as part of a “plan for retaining their natural beauty”. One of these was the 6.5-mile (10.5 km) “Cherry Springs Scenic Drive” on the old Coudersport-Jersey Shore Turnpike. That same year, one of 16 ”Class B” public campgrounds in the state forests was located on Cherry Springs Drive.[b] These campgrounds were free for the public to use and all had potable water, picnic tables, a fire place, garbage can, and a latrine. The land where the hotel sat was purchased by the state in 1932.

Like many state parks in north central Pennsylvania, development of the facilities at Cherry Springs was the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a work relief program for young men from unemployed families. Established in 1933 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal legislation, the CCC was designed to combat unemployment during the Great Depression. It operated in every U.S. state, and established ten CCC camps in the Susquehannock State Forest, of which eight were in Potter County.

Cherry Springs was home to CCC Camp S-136-Pa, which was established on May 27, 1933. According to the camp’s 1936 History: “Through the efforts of the [CCC] enrollees Cherry Springs Park, formerly a clearing, has been transformed into a park of which the people of Potter County can be proud of.”[sic] A historic recreation of the original tavern was built, as were a rifle range, picnic tables and shelters, roads, and hiking trails. The young men of the CCC camps worked to clear brush from the woods as a fire prevention measure. After clearing the woods, they planted stands of Norway Spruce and white pine, as well as an apple orchard. Camp-136-Pa closed on July 10, 1937.

The other CCC-built picnic pavilion has a hexagonal roof and is in the camping area.

Men from CCC Camp S-88-Pa, based at nearby Lyman Run in Potter County, were also active in the park. In 1939, they built a structure at Cherry Springs which is “the largest and most unique of the CCC-built picnic pavilions” in the state, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The pavilion overlooks PA Route 44 and is shaped like an H, with two partially enclosed structures (the vertical lines of the H) connected by a breezeway (the horizontal bar). The breezeway is a roof supported by eight log columns with log railings. The ends of the pavilion are built from log walls with white chinking, like log cabins. Each end has a large opening to the breezeway in one wall, while the other three sides are fully enclosed with a large window in the wall facing the highway, a stone fireplace and chimney on the opposite wall, and a door flanked by windows on the wall opposite the breezeway.

A 1984 survey of Pennsylvania state parks found the “three picnic pavilions, and their associated latrines” at Cherry Springs “typical of the smallest day use areas constructed by the CCC”. These pavilions are examples of the rustic style built by the CCC in state parks throughout the Great Depression. Local materials were used in a way that minimized impact on the natural surroundings, and in a manner that resembled the building style of the pioneer settlements of the Appalachian Mountains.

In addition to the two CCC camps active at the park, Cherry Springs also was home to Camp Elliott, which was run by the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters (precursor to the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR)) for college students and other unemployed men. In 1935 they built an airfield, Cherry Springs Intermediate Field, just north of the park. The 40-acre (16 ha) airfield was originally built for emergency landings and later became a small airport. In 1936 it had a sod runway of dimensions 2,400 by 500 feet (730 by 150 m), and a hangar. The United States’ entry into the Second World War led to the end of the CCC and all its camps were closed by the summer of 1942.

Modern era

The park has had several names through the years, starting with its 1922 establishment as “Cherry Springs Scenic Drive” and the associated “Cherry Springs ‘Class B’ public campground”. The 1941 Pennsylvania Department of Highways official map of Potter County shows it as “Cherry Springs State Park”. On November 11, 1954, the Pennsylvania Geographic Board officially named it “Cherry Springs State Forest Picnic Area”. Forrey’s 1984 History of Pennsylvania’s State Parks and the 1986 NRHP nomination form still used this name, but Forrey clarified that it was “under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of State Parks”. Cupper’s 1993 Our Priceless Heritage: Pennsylvania State Parks 18931993 refers to it as “Cherry Springs State Park”, and this remains the official name as of 2009.

Up to 10,000 stars, such as these in the constellation Cygnus, can be seen from the park

In the post-war era, the park was long known chiefly for its isolated location and primitive camping facilities. In August 1952 it played host to the first Woodsmen’s Carnival, an annual celebration of the lumbering industry, which was again active in the second growth forests in the area. The festival, originally sponsored by the Penn-York Lumbermen Club, features lumberjack competitions as a reminder of the past, as well as displays of new equipment. In 1987 the Galeton Rotary Club took over sponsorship, and renamed the event the Woodsmen Show in 1990.

In the 1980s, the CCC and its work in the park were honored. Cherry Springs State Park was one of several to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Civilian Conservation Corps with a CCC reunion in the summer of 1983. On May 11, 1987, the Cherry Springs Picnic Pavilion was listed on the NRHP. None of the other remaining CCC structures in the park had retained its historic integrity sufficiently to be included on the NRHP.

Cherry Springs began attracting stargazers in the early 1990s. In 1999 the “Dark Sky Fund” was established and continues “to enhance the stargazing and astronomy experience” by funding improvements at the park. In 2000 Cherry Springs was officially named a “Dark Sky Park” by the DCNR, and that same year it became part of the Hills Creek State Park complex, an administrative grouping of eight state parks in Potter and Tioga counties. The headquarters for Cherry Springs are at nearby Lyman Run State Park. The National Public Observatory picked it “as the pilot for the Stars-n-Parks program” in April 2001. The DCNR acquired the Cherry Springs Airport in 2006 ”to expand the overall Dark Sky observation area and allow for increased programming opportunities” at the park, and closed it in 2007. On June 11, 2008, the International Dark-Sky Association named Cherry Springs State Park the second “International Dark Sky Park”. (The first was Natural Bridges National Monument in Utah.)

Geology and climate

1938 aerial view of the park, airport, PA 44, West Branch Pine Creek, and Hopper House Run

Cherry Springs State Park is at an elevation of 2,300 feet (701 m) above sea level, atop the Allegheny Plateau and “near the glaciated boundary”. The plateau and the Appalachian Mountains were all formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. Although the region appears mountainous, these are not true mountains: instead millions of years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau, causing the “mountainous” terrain seen today. The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges, while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys.

The park is in the West Branch Pine Creek drainage basin, where the underlying rocks are primarily conglomerate, sandstone, and shale. Two major rock formations are present in Cherry Springs State Park, both at least partly from the Carboniferous period. The youngest of these, which forms the highest points in the park, is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation, a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone, siltstone, and shale, as well as anthracite coal. The lower formation is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation, which is made of relatively soft grayish-red shale and olive-gray sandstone. Outside the park the creek has cut down into the Devonian Catskill Formation, a reddish sandstone.

The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate, with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 F (11 C) in winter and 26 F (14 C) in summer. The mean annual precipitation for the West Branch Pine Creek watershed is 40 to 42 inches (1,016 to 1,067 mm). January is the coldest month at Cherry Springs, July the warmest, and June the wettest. The highest recorded temperature at the park was 94 F (34 C) in 1966, and the record low was 28 F (33.3 C) in 1963.

Climate data for Cherry Springs State Park

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Average high F (C)

29

(-1.7)

34

(1.1)

42

(5.6)

56

(13.3)

67

(19.4)

75

(23.9)

78

(25.6)

77

(25)

69

(20.6)

58

(14.4)

45

(7.2)

33

(0.6)

Average low F (C)

13

(-10.6)

15

(-9.4)

23

(-5)

33

(0.6)

43

(6.1)

51

(10.6)

54

(12.2)

53

(11.7)

47

(8.3)

37

(2.8)

28

(-2.2)

18

(-7.8)

Precipitation inches (mm)

2.47

(62.7)

2.28

(57.9)

2.84

(72.1)

3.12

(79.2)

3.73

(94.7)

5.63

(143)

4.13

(104.9)

3.99

(101.3)

3.99

(101.3)

3.34

(84.8)

3.59

(91.2)

2.87

(72.9)

Source: The Weather Channel March 7, 2009

Ecology

Northern Saw-whet Owls have been studied in the park.

Cherry Springs State Park and the surrounding Susquehannock State Forest have recovered from the clearcutting of the lumber era. However, the composition of the forests has changed, so that there are now more hardwoods, including Sugar Maple and Black Cherry, and fewer Eastern White Pine and Eastern Hemlock. The park also has apple trees from the CCC orchard. Over 400 species of birds have been found in Pennsylvania, including 186 that breed in the state. Birds such as Ospreys, hawks, owls, nightjars, and Bald Eagles have returned to the park and state forest, and Saw-whet Owls have been studied in the park.

Some animals which had been locally extinct have also returned or been reintroduced to the area, including White-tailed deer, Elk, Fishers (a type of weasel), and otters. Although banned in the park, hunting is allowed in the surrounding state forest, which regained its title as a “sportsmen’s paradise” in the 20th century. Game species include Black Bears, White-tailed Deer, ducks, Ruffed Grouse, rabbits, Gray and Red Squirrels, and Wild Turkeys. Other animals present in the park and forest include chipmunks, Minks, Raccoons, Porcupines, Groundhogs, and the occasional Bobcat, as well as frogs, beetles, and moths.

A branch of Hopper House Run rises within the park, and flows east and then north into the West Branch Pine Creek. West Branch Road (or Branch Road) follows the valleys of the run and creek from Pennsylvania Route 44 east 10 miles (16 km) to Galeton. PA 44 roughly follows the line dividing the Pine Creek watershed to the north and the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed to the south. East Fork Road leaves PA 44 in the park and follows the East Fork Sinnemahoning Creek valley southwest 12 miles (19 km) to the village of Conrad. Both creeks are approved trout streams for fishing, which means they are stocked with trout in season.

Recreation

Dark skies

The Trifid Nebula (M20) in Sagittarius, as seen from the park

Astronomers and stargazers appreciate Cherry Springs State Park for the darkness and clarity of its skies, which make it “perhaps the last best refuge of the natural night sky” in the eastern half of the United States. The sky at Cherry Springs has been classified as a 2 on the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, meaning it has almost no light pollution. Such “truly dark, starry skies are unavailable to two-thirds of the world population, including 99 percent of people in the continental U.S. and Western Europe”. With optimum conditions, 10,000 stars are visible with the naked eye at the park, clouds appear only as black holes in the starry sky, and the Milky Way is so bright that it casts a discernible shadow. In contrast, big city residents can see a few dozen stars at best, and even those in rural areas can typically only see 2,0003,000 stars. The Milky Way cannot be seen by most in the eastern US, even when there is no moonlight to obscure it.

The quality of the night skies at the park and its growing popularity for stargazing are the result of several factors. Cherry Springs is in the midst of the largely undeveloped 262,000-acre (106,000 ha) Susquehannock State Forest, and is on a summit 2,300 feet (701 m) above sea level. Because it is on the Allegheny Plateau, there are no mountain peaks to block the sky, and the Astronomy Field offers a 360 degree unobstructed view. The closest city is Williamsport, 60 miles (97 km) to the southeast. Surrounding communities sit in deep valleys, so the intervening terrain screens much of the light they produce; the park has no artificial skyglow in any direction. Cherry Springs is generally fog-free and its latitude puts it in excellent position to observe the Galactic Center of the Milky Way. The remote location also means there is little commercial air traffic to interfere with astrophotography, while PA Route 44 still offers relatively easy access to the park from Interstate 80.

In addition to these natural factors, much has been done intentionally to make the skies at the park clear and dark and help keep them that way. Within the park, former overhead electrical lines have been buried so they do not obstruct views, all lighting is shielded, and all white lights have been converted to red, which has the least effect on night vision and astrophotography. Light from passing vehicles is blocked by earthen berms covered with grass, or shrubbery and spruce trees; the Astronomy Field gate has a special light-blocking tarp. The park’s Dark Sky Fund has paid for many of these improvements since 1999.

Two of the park’s three astronomy domes, the walls prevent the wind from moving telescopes during observation

Since the 2006 acquisition of the Cherry Springs airport, a new Public Programming field has been established on the former airstrip. This field is northeast of PA Route 44 and is intended for educational programs or stargazing, but not for those who spend the night. Overnight observers and those with large telescopes use the Astronomy Field southwest of the highway. Nighttime visitors may only use flashlights with red filters, and may only point them at the ground. The Astronomy Field has further restrictions on lights, and parts of the park are light-free zones.

To help preserve the dark skies at Cherry Springs State Park, Tri-County Rural Electric company installs light-shielding caps on outdoor lights at local homes for free. In 2001 the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed the “Outdoor Lighting Control Act”, which both established the park as a “Dark Sky Preserve” and required minimal and shielded lighting at all new state facilities to reduce light pollution. A design guide for the Pennsylvania Wilds region, which includes the park, emphasizes the importance of maintaining dark skies. The DCNR spent $396,000 in June 2007 to buy mineral rights under 1,980 acres (800 ha) of the park and state forest to prevent natural gas drilling and associated development there.

A wind farm has been proposed on a site 13.7 miles (22.0 km) from the park. In 2008 Potter County passed an ordinance that wind turbine lights shall not “interfere with the state-designated Dark Skies Preserve at Cherry Springs State Park”. That same year the DCNR commissioned a study on the wind farm’s impact, which concluded the red warning lights on the wind turbines would not impact the darkness of the sky and would only be directly visible from the Astronomy Field under rare conditions. Others in the astronomy community challenged these conclusions and feared that new lights on “several dozen wind turbines near the park” will degrade observations and astrophotography. The study also recommended that the DCNR shield and redirect lights at the nearby Denton Hill State Park downhill ski area to make the sky even darker at Cherry Springs.

Astronomical observing

Telescopes belonging to amateur astronomers await nightfall

The staff at Cherry Springs State Park did not intend for it to become an attraction for amateur astronomers; the astronomers came to them instead. In 1997 or 1998 Chip Harrison, the park supervisor, noticed a man looking through a telescope at the park at about 1 AM. When Harrison asked why the man had come there, the astronomer said he had noticed an isolated black patch over north central Pennsylvania on nighttime satellite photos. Cherry Springs State Park is in that patch, one of the best locations east of the Mississippi River for stargazing.

An increasing number of astronomers began to come to Cherry Springs, most in the 14-day dark sky period around the new moon, between the last quarter and first quarter phases. The park is open year-round and between 60 and 85 nights each year have ideal conditions, when the apparent magnitudes of the faintest stars visible can range from 7.1 to 7.5. The park’s Astronomy Field has been upgraded to accommodate these astronomers. In 2005 a rotating 15-foot (4.6 m) slotted observatory dome, two 12-foot (3.7 m) clamshell domes, and a 10-by-12-foot (3.0 by 3.7 m) sky shed were added, as well as a small amphitheater for programs. The four structures protect telescopes from the wind and thermal currents. The next year concrete pads 4 and 6 feet (1.2 and 1.8 m) in diameter were placed at random in the field, and electrical pedestals, each with six outlets, were added to power telescopes and computers. In 2009, Wi-Fi internet access will be added to the Astronomy Field.

The Whirlpool Galaxy (M51) in the constellation Canes Venatici, as seen from the Astronomy Field

While a typical clear night might have 50 to 100 observers, each year the park hosts two major star parties which both attract several hundred astronomers for several nights. The Black Forest Star Party, sponsored by the Central Pennsylvania Observers of State College, has been held each fall since 1999. The Cherry Springs Star Party, sponsored by the Astronomical Society of Harrisburg, has been held each June since 2005. There are also free public programs at the amphitheater on the former airport site, some of which are part of the National Public Observatory’s Stars-n-Parks program. Meteor showers will also attract a crowd and the Aurora Borealis can be seen from the park. A stargazing business, “Crystal Spheres”, has been established and presents Music and Stars programs, with an hour-long concert followed by an hour of stargazing. Such “nature tourism” has a positive economic impact for the area.

Awards and press recognition have come to Cherry Springs and its staff. Thom Bemus, who initiated and coordinates the Stars-n-Parks program, was named DCNR’s 2002 Volunteer of the Year. In 2007 the park’s Dark Sky Programming and staff received the Environmental Education Excellence in Programming award from the Pennsylvania Recreation and Parks Society. Operations manager Chip Harrison and his wife Maxine, who directs the Dark Sky Fund, received a 2008 award from the Pennsylvania Outdoor Lighting Council for “steadfast adherence and active promotion of the principles of responsible outdoor lighting at Cherry Springs State Park”. The DCNR has named Cherry Springs one of “Twenty Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks”, specifically for having the “darkest night skies on the east coast”. Cherry Springs State Park was featured in the national press in 2003 when USA Today named it one of “10 Great Places to get some stars in your eyes”, in 2006 when National Geographic Adventure featured it in “Pennsylvania: The Wild, Wild East”, and in the The New York Times in 2007. All these were before it was named an International Dark Sky Park by the International Dark-Sky Association in 2008.

Woodsmen’s Show

A chainsaw event at the Woodsmen’s Show

The Woodsmen’s Show attracts thousands of visitors to Cherry Springs State Park on the first weekend in August. It has been held every year since 1952, and has been sponsored by the Galeton Rotary Club since 1987. In 2008 events at the three-day show included tree-felling, cross-cutting, log rolling, axe-throwing, horse pulling, spring board chopping, the standing block chop, and chainsaw competitions and demonstrations. The 2008 show also featured historic recreations of life in a logging camp, musical performances, and vendors selling food, crafts, and equipment related to the lumber industry.

The show and its events, which celebrate Potter County’s lumbering history, have changed with time. In the early years, up to three working sawmills were set up just for the carnival, and there was an associated Woodsmen Ball on Saturday evening, after the carnival ended. The Woodsmen’s Show had its first female competitor in 1979. Some events have been tried and discontinued; in 1987 one-hour seminars on topics such as “Outdoor Adventures on Mules” and the first “Woodsmen’s Carnival Queen” were introduced, and in 1993 there was tractor pulling with lawn tractors. In 1990 the name was changed from the “Woodsmen’s Carnival” to the “Woodsmen’s Show”, a third day was added, and an ecumenical church service was held Sunday morning in the large picnic pavilion. The next year the show was part of the STIHL Timbersports Series and some of the competition was televised on ESPN. Although it is no longer part of the STIHL series, as of 2008 many of the same athletes competed at the show.

Attendance was 4,000 the first year and grew to 12,000 three years later in 1955, then peaked at 33,000 in 1962, with nearly as many in 1965 (32,000) and 1981 (30,000). In 1983, 20,000 visitors came to the show, 15,000 came in 1985, and by the early 21st century attendance was about 14,000. Admission is charged and cash prizes are awarded in the competitions. Proceeds from the show under the Penn-York Lumbermen Club went to promote the lumber industry and support the Pennsylvania Lumber Museum. The Galeton Rotary Club has used the funds to improve the standard of living in and around Galeton, including college scholarships, a new roof for the Community building, support for the local public library, and clean-up and maintenance of the downtown.

Camping, picnicking, and trails

The camping area at the park, with picnic tables

The park has 30 camping sites which can each accommodate a tent, or a recreational vehicle (RV) up to 30 feet (9.1 m) long. The sites all have a fire ring, lantern hanger, and picnic table, and are classified as rustic because they have no running water. The camping area, which is southeast of Pennsylvania Route 44, is open from April to December and does not accept reservations. The park has two modern latrines, one in the camping area and the other at the Astronomy Field. There is also a holding tank dump station for RVs. Although the Astronomy Field is not an official camping area, overnight observers may set up tents and vehicles there in which to camp. In addition to the picnic tables and small pavilion in the camping area, the main picnic area at Cherry Springs is on the southwest side of Route 44, in and around the large historic, CCC-built pavilion. The area surrounding the pavilion has many picnic tables situated in an old apple orchard and a stand of huge White Pine and Norway spruce trees.

Cherry Springs State Park is at the southern end of a 15-mile (24 km) long, single-track mountain bike trail, which begins at Denton Hill State Park and passes through Patterson State Park. In 2005 the snowmobile trailhead at Cherry Springs was moved to the southern end of the park to avoid the Astronomy Field. The snowmobile trail is one of many trails available for cross-country skiing, backpacking, hiking, and all-terrain vehicle and horseback riding in the surrounding Susquehannock State Forest. The 85-mile (137 km) long Susquehannock Trail System passes close to the park and loops around it. South of the park the trail passes through the Hammersley Wild Area, which at 30,253 acres (12,243 ha) without roads is the second largest wild area in Pennsylvania.

Nearby state parks

Cherry Springs State Park is on Pennsylvania Route 44 in West Branch Township, 10 miles (16 km) southwest of Galeton. The following state parks are within 30 miles (48 km) of Cherry Springs State Park:

Bucktail State Park Natural Area (Cameron and Clinton Counties)

Colton Point State Park (Tioga County)

Denton Hill State Park (Potter County)

Hyner Run State Park (Clinton County)

Hyner View State Park (Clinton County)

Kettle Creek State Park (Clinton Counties)

Leonard Harrison State Park (Tioga County)

Lyman Run State Park (Potter County)

Ole Bull State Park (Potter County)

Patterson State Park (Potter County)

Prouty Place State Park (Potter County)

Sinnemahoning State Park (Cameron and Potter Counties)

Sizerville State Park (Cameron and Potter Counties)

Panoramic view of the park, left to right: astronomy bulletin board, CCC-built picnic pavilion, pumphouse, Astronomy Field, sky shed and three astronomy observation domes, information display, modern latrines, amphitheater, and CCC-built replica of the Cherry Springs Tavern (log cabin across Pennsylvania Route 44).

Notes

a. ^ As of April 2009, the official website for Cherry Springs State Park still lists the area as 48 acres (19 ha), as does Forrey’s 1984 History of Pennsylvania’s State Parks. This was the size of the park before the Cherry Springs Airport was closed and much of its land was transferred to the park. When built the airport was 40 acres (16 ha), and it had expanded in size to 59 acres (24 ha) by 1981. The airport land was owned by the Bureau of Forestry, which is part of the DCNR along with the Bureau of State Parks.

b. ^ Although the park was along the 6.5-mile (10.5 km) Cherry Springs Drive, the exact endpoints of the drive are not clear. Two vistas are southeast of the park on Pennsylvania Route 44: it is 3.1 miles (5.0 km) from the park to Water Tank Hollow Vista (which looks north), and 1.8 miles (2.9 km) from the park to Cherry Springs Vista (which looks south). The Cherry Springs fire tower is 1.9 miles (3.1 km) south of the park, just south of Cherry Springs vista. Coudersport is 15 miles (24 km) northwest of the park along Route 44, and the Cherry Springs “Class B” public campground was about11 miles (18 km) from Coudersport, or about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the current park. As of 2009 this area is part of the state forest, but does not have any park facilities. The United States Geological Survey topographic map (Ayers Hill quadrant) does show a “Little Cherry Springs Park” in this area. Patterson State Park is a short distance northwest of the site of Little Cherry Springs Park, and it is 6.5 miles (10.5 km) along PA 44 from Patterson to the Cherry Springs vista.

References

^ a b “Cherry Springs State Park”. Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. August 30, 1990. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:1171676. Retrieved February 10, 2008. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q “Cherry Springs State Park”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/Parks/cherrysprings.aspx. Retrieved November 4, 2006. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j “Pennsylvania WildsDarkSkies: An Early Implementation Conceptualization for Cherry Springs State Park”. Fermata Inc. December 2004. http://www.fermatainc.com/penn/documents/CherrySprings02_000.pdf. Retrieved March 20, 2009.  Note: the official map of the park before the Cherry Springs Airport was added to its territory is on page 5.

^ a b “Twenty Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/twenty/20parks.aspx. Retrieved August 8, 2007.  Note: Despite the title, there are twenty-one parks in the list, with Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks treated as one.

^ a b Kent, Barry C.; Smith III, Ira F.; McCann, Catherine (Editors) (1971). Foundations of Pennsylvania Prehistory. Anthropological Series of the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. 1. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. OCLC 2696039. 

^ a b c d e f Wallace, Paul A. W. (2000). Indians in Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. ISBN 978-0892710171. 

Note: For a general overview of Native American History in the West Branch Susquehanna watershed, see Meginness, John Franklin (1892). “Chapter I. Aboriginal Occupation.”. History of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania: including its aboriginal history; the colonial and revolutionary periods; early settlement and subsequent growth; organization and civil administration; the legal and medical professions; internal improvement; past and present history of Williamsport; manufacturing and lumber interests; religious, educational, and social development; geology and agriculture; military record; sketches of boroughs, townships, and villages; portraits and biographies of pioneers and representative citizens, etc. etc. (1st ed.). Chicago, IL: Brown, Runk & Co. ISBN 0-7884-0428-8. http://www.usgennet.org/usa/pa/county/lycoming/history/Chapter-01.html. Retrieved June 17, 2008.  Note: ISBN refers to the Heritage Books July 1996 reprint. URL is to a scan of the 1892 version with some OCR typos.

^ a b Wallace, Paul A.W. (1987). Indian Paths of Pennsylvania (Fourth Printing ed.). Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. pp. 6672. ISBN 0-89271-090-X.  Note: ISBN refers to 1998 impression

^ Donehoo, Dr. George P. (1999) (PDF). A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania (Second Reprint ed.). Lewisburg, Pennsylvania: Wennawoods Publishing. pp. 215219. ISBN 1-889037-11-7. http://www.srbc.net/docs/IndianNamesDataChart.PDF. Retrieved November 9, 2006.  Note: ISBN refers to a 1999 reprint edition, URL is for the Susquehanna River Basin Commission’s web page of Native American Place names, quoting and citing the book

^ a b Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Susquehannock State Forest Map [map], 1 inch = 2 miles. Retrieved on March 3, 2009.

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Morey, Tim; Harrison, Maxine (2002). “Cherry Springs State Park: Hidden Resource in the Dark (part of the “Emerald Gems” series)”. Pennsylvania Recreation & Parks (State College, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Recreation and Park Society) 33 (No. 2). ISSN 0742-793X. http://www.kwastronomy.com/History_of_Cherry_Springs_Park.htm. Retrieved October 14, 2008.  Note: URL is to an authorized reprint of the article as “History of Cherry Springs State Park” on Kevin Wigell’s Astronomy Page

^ a b Michels, Chris (1997). “Latitude/Longitude Distance Calculation”. Northern Arizona University. http://www2.nau.edu/~cvm/latlongdist.html. Retrieved February 2, 2009. 

^ a b “Potter County 8th class” (PDF). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/dam/counties/pdfs/Potter.pdf. Retrieved May 4, 2007. 

^ a b c d “The Pennsylvania Lumber Museum – History”. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. http://www.lumbermuseum.org/history.html. Retrieved May 1, 2009. 

^ Taber III, Thomas T. (1995). “Chapter Two: The Boom Making It All Possible”. Williamsport Lumber Capital (First ed.). Montoursville, Pennsylvania: Paulhamus Litho, Inc. pp. 2334. OCLC 35920715. 

^ a b c Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Cherry Springs State Park [map]. (January, 2008) Retrieved on March 10, 2009. Note: One spring feeding Hopper House Run is between the Cherry Springs Tavern and the parking lot (photo), while another is between PA Route 44 and West Branch Road, just east of their junction (photo).

^ a b Owlett, Steven E. (1993). “The Death of a Forest”. Seasons Along The Tiadaghton: An Environmental History of the Pine Creek Gorge (1st ed.). Petaluma, California: Interprint. pp. 5362. ISBN 0-9635905-0-2. 

^ “History of the William Penn State Forest”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/stateforests/valleyforgehistory.aspx. Retrieved March 4, 2009. 

^ “Consumer Price Index (Estimate) 1800-2008″. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. 2009. http://www.minneapolisfed.org/community_education/teacher/calc/hist1800.cfm. Retrieved February 25, 2009. 

^ a b c d Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Forestry. A Public Use Map for Susquehannock State Forest [map]. (July 2003) Note: This is a map on one side, with a guide to the state forest and its resources on the other side

^ a b c d e “Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Architecture in Pennsylvania State Parks: 19331942, Thematic Resources”. National Park Service, National Register of Historic Places. January 5, 1987. http://www.nr.nps.gov/multiples/64000724.pdf. Retrieved March 6, 2009. 

^ a b c d e Forrey, William C. (1984). History of Pennsylvania’s State Parks. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Bureau of State Parks, Office of Resources Management, Department of Environmental Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. pp. 1316, 90, 91, 97. OCLC 17824084. 

^ a b Paige, John C. (1985). “Chapter One: A Brief History of the Civilian Conservation Corps”. The Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Park Service, 19331942: An Administrative History. Washington, C.C.: U.S. National Park Service, Department of the Interior. OCLC 12072830. http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/ccc/ccc1.htm. Retrieved February 11, 2009. 

^ Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. CCC Camps in Pennsylvania 19331942 [map]. Retrieved on March 6, 2009.

^ a b “Camp Information for S-136-Pa”. Pennsylvania CCC Archive. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/ccc/camp.aspx?ID=63. Retrieved March 6, 2009. 

^ “History Company 5437, S-136-Pa. Galeton, Pa.”. Pennsylvania CCC Archive. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/ccc/docs/140.pdf. Retrieved March 6, 2009. 

^ “Lyman Run State Park”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/Parks/lymanrun.aspx. Retrieved October 30, 2007. 

^ a b c d “National Historic Landmarks & National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania” (Searchable database). ARCH: Pennsylvania’s Historic Architecture & Archaeology. http://www.arch.state.pa.us. Retrieved October 25, 2008.  Note: This includes John Milner Associates (1986). “Pennsylvania Historic Resource Survey Form: Cherry Springs State Park” (PDF). http://www.arch.state.pa.us/pdfs/H088873_01B.pdf. Retrieved October 25, 2008. 

^ Civil Aeronautics Bulletin. United States Civil Aeronautics Administration. 1936. p. 22. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OO3AAAAIAAJ&dq=Cherry+Spring+Airport&q=”Cherry+Springs”&pgis=1. Retrieved March 6, 2009. 

^ Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. General Highway Map Potter County Pennsylvania [map]. Cartography by Pennsylvania Department of Highways in cooperation with the Public Roads Administration Federal Works Agency. (1941 (Culture Features as of 1939)) Retrieved on March 9, 2009.

^ a b c Cupper, Dan (1993). Our Priceless Heritage: Pennsylvania State Parks 18931993. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission for Pennsylvania Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of State Parks. pp. 25, 27, 54. ISBN 0-89271-056-X. 

^ “Woodsman’s Carnival set”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 2. May 27, 1987. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=14509737&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=5&currentPage=10. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ a b “Woodsmen’s show set in Galeton”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 8. July 25, 1990. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=18601372&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=2&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ a b c d e f g “The Dark Skies of Cherry Springs State Park”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/parks/cherrysprings/cherrysprings_darkskies.aspx. Retrieved March 11, 2009. 

^ “Manager named at Hills Creek Lake”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 6. February 2, 2000. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12106011&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=4&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 9, 2009.  Note: the eight parks in the Hills Creek State Park Complex are Cherry Springs, Colton Point, Denton Hill, Hills Creek, Leonard Harrison, Lyman Run, Patterson, and Prouty Place.

^ a b c “Progress through Partnerships: A Three-Year Report on the Pennsylvania Wilds”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. January, 2007. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/pawilds/progressthroughpartnerships.pdf. Retrieved March 11, 2009. 

^ “It was the news: stories of 2007″. Endeavor News. January 5, 2008. http://www.endeavornews.com/news/2008/0105/front_page/005.html. Retrieved March 11, 2009. 

^ a b c Frank Roylance. “Pa. park wins “dark sky” designation”. The Baltimore Sun / MarylandWeather.com. http://weblogs.marylandweather.com/2008/06/pa_park_wins_dark_sky_designat.html. Retrieved June 21, 2008. 

^ a b Van Diver, Bradford B. (1990). Roadside Geology of Pennsylvania. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company. p. 115. ISBN 0-87842-227-7. 

^ a b Shultz, Charles H. (Editor) (1999). The Geology of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Society and Pittsburgh Geological Society. ISBN 0-8182-0277-0. 

^ a b Shaw, Lewis C. (June 1984). Pennsylvania Gazetteer of Streams Part II (Water Resources Bulletin No. 16). Prepared in Cooperation with the United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey (1st ed.). Harrisburg, PA: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Environmental Resources. p. 162. OCLC 17150333. 

^ Berg, T. M. (1981). “Atlas of Preliminary Geologic Quadrangle Maps of Pennsylvania: Cherry Springs” (PDF). Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/map61/conrad15ne.pdf. Retrieved March 8, 2009. 

^ “Map 67: Tabloid Edition Explanation” (PDF). Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/pub/map/pdfs/map067_tabloid_exp.pdf. Retrieved June 3, 2008. 

^ “Climate of Pennsylvania” (PDF). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania State Climatologist. http://climate.met.psu.edu/data/ncdc_pa.pdf. Retrieved April 12, 2008. 

^ a b “Monthly Averages for Cherry Springs State Park”. The Weather Channel Interactive, Inc. http://www.weather.com/outlook/recreation/outdoors/wxclimatology/monthly/PASPCS:13. Retrieved March 7, 2009. 

^ Audubon Pennsylvania; Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Searchable database). Susquehanna River Birding and Wildlife Trail. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. p. 2. http://web1.audubon.org/trailMaps/. Retrieved March 8, 2009. 

^ “Pennsylvania Wilds Discovery Weekend Offers Outdoor Adventure” (PDF). Pennsylvania State Government. http://www.state.pa.us/papower/cwp/view.asp?A=11&Q=455724. Retrieved June 3, 2008. 

^ a b Miller, Jason (2006). Pennsylvania Camping: The Complete Guide to Tent and RV Camping. Moon Outdoors. Miller, Jason Jack (photographer). Avalon Travel Publishing. ISBN 978-1566919869. http://books.google.com/books?id=-5EWcHhCUSwC&pg=PA89&dq=cherry+Springs+Camping+moon. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ a b c d Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Bureau of Planning and Research, Geographic Information Division. 2007 General Highway Map Potter County Pennsylvania [map], 1:65,000. Retrieved on July 27, 2007. Note: shows Cherry Springs State Park

^ “PFBC County Guide”. Searchable interactive map. Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. http://pfbc.state.pa.us/CountyGuide/County_Guide.htm. Retrieved March 10, 2009. 

^ a b c d e Clanton & Associates (May 27, 2008). “Cherry Springs State Park: Light Pollution Analysis and Recommendations”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/wind/documents/cherry-springs-state-park-light-pollution-analysis-05-29-08.pdf. Retrieved March 21, 2009. 

^ a b c d e f g Caldwell, Dave (September 14, 2007). “Dark Sky, Bright Lights Over Pennsylvania”. The New York Times. http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/09/14/travel/escapes/14dark.html. Retrieved February 1, 2009. 

^ a b c Lamey, Jessica (June 29, 2008). “‘Awesome’: Stargazers revel in Cherry Springs dark skies”. Williamsport Sun-Gazette: pp. E1, E3. http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/512360.html?nav=5013. Retrieved March 23, 2009. 

^ a b Beatty, Kelly (June 27, 2008). “Cherry Springs Earns Dark-Sky Status”. Sky and Telescope. http://www.skyandtelescope.com/news/21914474.html. Retrieved March 27, 2009. 

^ “An Act Providing for management of outdoor night lighting (House Bill No. 300, Session of 2001)”. The General Assembly of Pennsylvania. November 13, 2001. http://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=PDF&sessYr=2001&sessInd=0&billBody=H&billTyp=B&billNbr=0300&pn=2860. Retrieved March 23, 2009. 

^ The Pennsylvania Wilds Planning Team (February 13, 2009). “Pennsylvania Wilds Design Guide” A Design Guide for Community Character Stewardship”. Clinton County, Pennsylvania. http://www.clintoncountypa.com/PA Wilds/PA Wilds Guide/PA Wilds Design Guide2.pdf. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ Hopey, Don (May 3, 2009). “Goddard State Park’s gas wells may be first of hundreds: Where mineral rights are privately owned, Pennsylvania officials can’t prevent drilling”. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/09123/967360-113.stm. Retrieved May 6, 2009. 

^ “Potter County Wind Energy Ordinance”. Potter County, Pennsylvania. 2008. http://pottercountypa.net/wind/index.html. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ “State: Proposed wind farm would not affect dark skies at Cherry Springs State Park”. Williamsport Sun-Gazette: p. E3. June 29, 2008. http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/512363.html. Retrieved March 23, 2009. 

^ a b Nephin, Dan (September 15, 2006). “Pennsylvania peak is heaven for stargazers”. Associated Press / Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06258/721452-37.stm. Retrieved March 23, 2009. 

^ “2009 Cherry Springs Star Party”. The Astronomical Society of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. http://www.astrohbg.org/CSSP/Information.html. Retrieved May 6, 2009. 

^ “About the Black Forest Star Party”. Central Pennsylvania Observers, Inc.. http://www.bfsp.org/starparty/about.cfm. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ “Cherry Springs Star Party 2009 Schedule”. The Astronomical Society of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. http://www.astrohbg.org/CSSP/Schedule.html. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ Morey, Tim (June 2007). “A PA Wilds Business Success Story: The Sky the Limit for Astronomy in Potter County”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/pawilds/0706-twotw.aspx. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ a b August, Henry (April 9, 2003). “Volunteer receives DCNR award”. Wellsboro Gazette (The Marketplace). http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=29872600&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=0&currentPage=0. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ “Cherry Springs wins environmental award”. Wellsboro Gazette (The Marketplace). 2007-05-30. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=131773422&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=1&currentPage=0. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ “Cherry Springs State Park team of husband-wife receives award”. Williamsport Sun-Gazette. September 21, 2008. http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/515859.html. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ “10 Great Places to get some stars in your eyes”. USA Today. July 31, 2003. http://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/10great/2003-09-29-star-gazing_x.htm. Retrieved March 29, 2009. 

^ Minarcek, Andrea (May 2006). “Pennsylvania: The Wild, Wild East”. National Geographic Adventure. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/travel/pennsylvania.html. Retrieved March 30, 2009. 

^ “57th Annual Woodsmen’s Show”. T. Dennison Promotions. http://www.woodsmenshow.com/MAJOR EVENTS.htm. Retrieved February 11, 2009. 

^ a b c Lamey, Jessica (July 27, 2008). “Cherry Springs State Park hosts 57th edition of Woodsmen Show”. Williamsport Sun-Gazette. http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/513424.html. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Ann’l Woodsmen’s Carnival Aug. 5-6, Cherry Springs Park”. Wellsboro Agitator: p. 7. August 4, 1956. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12215681&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=3&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Woodsmen’s Show – Largest Yet”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 4. August 8, 1979. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=14477673&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=4&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ a b “Lots going on at woodsmen’s carnival”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 7. July 8, 1987. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=14511071&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=5&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Potter County’s annual Woodsmen’s Show buzzes into Cherry Springs State Park”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 15. July 28, 1993. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12385470&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=0&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Annual Woodsmen’s show to open at Cherry Springs”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 19. July 24, 1991. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12327062&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=3&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Woodsmen Hold Carnival August 3, Cherry Springs Park”. Wellsboro Agitator: p. 1. July 26, 1956. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12219153&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=0&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Woodsmen’s Carnival Attracts 33,000 Persons Winners Announced”. Wellsboro Agitator: p. 8. August 9, 1962. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12109868&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=7&currentPage=10. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Annual Woodsmen’s Carnival Aug. 5-6 Arena Enlarged”. Wellsboro Agitator: p. 12. July 7, 1966. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12124813&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=8&currentPage=10. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Woodsmen’s Carnival is Success”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 17. August 5, 1981. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12209540&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=7&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 7, 2009. 

^ a b “Woodsmen’s Carnival A Success? … You Bet!”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 19. August 10, 1983. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=12222660&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=3&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “15,000 Attend Woodsmen’s Show”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 25. August 7, 1985. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=14493088&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=0&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Galeton Rotary Club”. T. Dennison Promotions. http://www.woodsmenshow.com/galeton_rotary_club.htm. Retrieved February 10, 2009. 

^ “Camping Locations: Pennsylvania Wilds”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/recreation/camplist_wilds.aspx. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Patterson State Park”. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/Parks/patterson.aspx. Retrieved November 4, 2006. 

^ “Cherry Springs State Park snowmobile trailhead relocated”. Wellsboro Gazette: p. 14. November 30, 2005. http://greenfreelibrary.newspaperarchive.com/PdfViewer.aspx?img=74402018&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=0&currentPage=0. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “Hammersley Wild Area becomes official”. The Resource. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. January 2004. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/news/resource/res2004/01-hammersley.aspx. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 

^ “”Cherry Springs Airport”". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. August 30, 1990. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:1194270. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 

^ Federal Aviation Administration. “Cherry Springs Airport”. Public 5010 Web. http://www.gcr1.com/5010web/main.cfm?Site=5G6. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 

^ “Pennsylvania: Allegheny Plateau Scenic Drive”. The Weather Channel. http://www.weather.com/outlook/driving/scenicdrives/?sd=paalleghenyplateau.jsp&param1=USPA1799&param2=USPA0930&param3=USPA0339. Retrieved 2009-04-06.  This cites Ostertag, George; Ostertag, Rhonda (1999). Scenic Driving Pennsylvania. Helena, Montana: Falcon Press Publishing Co. ISBN 1-56044-732-X. 

^ Illick, Joseph S.; Shoemaker, Henry W. (1925). Bulletin: In Penn’s woods. A handy and helpful pocket manual of the natural wonders and recreational facilities of the state forests of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania. Dept. of Forests and Waters. pp. 3941. http://books.google.com/books?id=bO5DAAAAIAAJ&dq;=”cherry+springs+drive”&q=”cherry+springs”&pgis=1. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 

^ “Little Cherry Springs Park”. Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. August 2, 1979. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:1179501. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cherry Springs State Park

Cherry Springs State Park official mapPDF (209 KB)

The Dark Skies of Cherry Springs State Park Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources

Cherry Springs State Park Clear Sky Chart Attilla Danko

Black Forest Star Party Central Pennsylvania Observers

Cherry Springs Star Party The Astronomical Society of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

Annual Woodsmen’s Show

v  d  e

Protected Areas of Pennsylvania

Federal

National Historical

Parks & Sites:

Allegheny Portage Railroad   Edgar Allan Poe   Eisenhower   Friendship Hill   Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church   Grey Towers National Historic Site   Hopewell Furnace   Independence Hall   Steamtown   Valley Forge

National Memorials:

Benjamin Franklin   Flight 93   Johnstown Flood  Thaddeus Kosciuszko

National Military Parks:

Fort Necessity   Gettysburg

National Trails:

Appalachian Trail

Other Protected Areas:

Allegheny National Recreation Area  Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area   Middle Delaware National Scenic River  Upper Delaware…

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS OF TEACHING

Students have different intellectual capacities and learning styles that favour or hinder knowledge accumulation. As a result, teachers are interested in ways to effectively cause students to understand better and learn. Teachers want to bring about better understanding of the material he/she wants to communicate. It is the responsibility of the educational institutions and teachers to seek more effective ways of teaching in order to meet individual’s and society’s expectations from education. Improving teaching methods may help an institution meet its goal of achieving improved learning outcomes.

Teaching methods can either be inductive or deductive or some combination of the two.

The inductive teaching method or process goes from the specific to the general and may be based on specific experiments or experimental learning exercises. Deductive teaching method progresses from general concept to the specific use or application.

These methods are used particularly in reasoning i.e. logic and problem solving.

To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation.

Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive.

For example, “Ram must be in either the museum or in the cafeteria.” He is not in the cafeteria; therefore he is must be  in the museum. This is deductive reasoning.

As an example of inductive reasoning, we have, “Previous accidents of this sort were caused by instrument failure, and therefore, this accident was caused by instrument failure.

The most significant difference between these forms of reasoning is that in the deductive case the truth of the premises (conditions) guarantees the truth of the conclusion, whereas in the inductive case, the truth of the premises lends support to the conclusion without giving absolute assurance. Inductive arguments intend to support their conclusions only to some degree; the premises do not necessitate the conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is common in science, where data is collected and tentative models are developed to describe and predict future behaviour, until the appearance of the anomalous data forces the model to be revised.

Deductive reasoning is common in mathematics and logic, where elaborate structures of irrefutable theorems are built up from a small set of basic axioms and rules. However examples exist where teaching by inductive method bears fruit.







EXAMPLES:  (INDUCTIVE METHOD):

1)      MATHEMATICS:

A)   Ask students to draw a few sets of parallel lines with two lines in each set. Let them construct and measure the corresponding and alternate angles in each case. They will find them equal in all cases. This conclusion in a good number of cases will enable them to generalise that “corresponding angles are equal; alternate angles are equal.” This is a case where equality of corresponding and alternate angles in a certain sets of parallel lines (specific) helps us to generalise the conclusion. Thus this is an example of inductive method.

B)    Ask students to construct a few triangles. Let them measure and sum up the interior angles in each case. The sum will be same (= 180°) in each case. Thus they can conclude that “the sum of the interior angles of a triangle = 180°). This is a case where equality of sum of interior angles of a triangle (=180°) in certain number of triangles leads us to generalise the conclusion. Thus this is an example of inductive method.

C)    Let the mathematical statement be, S (n): 1 + 2 + ……+ n =. It can be proved that if the result holds for n = 1, and it is assumed to be true for n = k, then it is true for n = k +1 and thus for all natural numbers n. Here, the given result is true for a specific value of n = 1 and we prove it to be true for a general value of n which leads to the generalization of the conclusion. Thus it is an example of inductive method.

2)    LANGUAGES:

A)    Development of a story from a given outline is an example of inductive method because the student may develop any story from the given outline (specific) based on his/her imagination.

B)     Writing a letter to his father describing a particular event of his life, is an example of inductive method because, the event and the language (use of words) differs from student to student (general) while the format of the letter is always specific as it always starts with “Respected Father”, then is the body of the letter and finally the closure is done by “your (loving) son/daughter” followed by name.

C)     Writing an essay on “the book I like most”, is an example of inductive method because while the format of essay i.e., introduction followed by body and finally, the conclusion, always remains the same (specific) but the book and the reasons for liking it and the words used differ from individual to individual (general).

3)    CHEMISTRY:

Elements in the periodic table are divided into several groups which have similar properties and electronic configurations etc. Thus if the properties of individual elements in a group like chemical reactivity, melting point, boiling point, ionization energy etc. are known the properties of the elements of the entire group can be predicted with very few exceptions. Thus it proceeds from specific to general and so is an example of inductive method.

4)    PHYSICS:

By noting the amount of work done in lifting a body from the ground to a height h, we can derive the relation between the  potential energy of the body (P.E.) with the height attained by it from the ground, which is P.E. = m g h, where,  g = 9.8 m/sec2, the acceleration due to gravity acting vertically downwards. The height being specific, it proceeds from specific to general and so is an example of inductive method.

5)    BIOLOGY:

a)     Morphological and anatomical characteristics can be studied in particular plants with prominent characteristics, such as Lemna (Duckweed), Eichhornia (water hyacinth) hydrilla, Opuntia, Accacia, Calotropis (AK); for understanding the ecological adaptations of plants into three groups on the basis of plant water relationships as Aquatic (Hydrophytes), Terrestrial (Xerophytes, Mesophytes) and Halophytes. As it proceeds from particular to general, therefore it is an example of inductive method.

b)    The children are explained the consequences of depletion of resources like coal, petroleum and then let them reason the need for conservation of resources and methods for it. As it proceeds from particular to general, therefore it is an example of inductive method.

6)    ECONOMICS:

By studying the factors affecting inflation which are specific, like the supply and demand of goods in an economy etc, we can predict as to whether the rate of inflation will rise or fall during a given period of time (general) which ultimately gives an estimate of the cost of living in an economy and calculating the cost of living index number, the govt. is able to decide regarding the extent of increase in the dearness allowance (DA).

EXAMPLES:  (DEDUCTIVE METHOD):

1)      MATHEMATICS:

A)    We have an axiom that “two distinct lines in a plane are either parallel or intersecting” (general).  Based on this axiom, the corresponding theorem is: “Two distinct lines in a plane cannot have more than one point in common.” (Specific). Thus this is an example of deductive method.

B)     We have a formula for the solution of the linear simultaneous equations as  and(general). The students find the solutions of some problems like  based on this formula (specific). Thus this is an example of deductive method.

2)    LANGUAGES:

A)   Writing a summary of a passage known as précis writing is an example of deductive method because for the given passage (general) we always have certain key points which are included in the summary (specific).

B)    Explaining a poem in prose with reference to context is an example of deductive method because the poem being given (general), we always try to pen the specific idea or thought of the poet in prose. Hence it is an example of deductive method.

3)    CHEMISTRY:

The experiment of salt analysis is an example of deductive method because here, we firstly perform the preliminary test also known as dry test (general) to ascertain as to which group it may probably belong. The group being ascertained, we proceed to perform specific confirmatory test to identify the particular salt. Thus it proceeds from general to specific.

4)    PHYSICS:

By using the properties of semi-conductors (general), we make several instruments like diodes and transistors which have (specific) uses like the light emitting diode (LED) is used in remote control instruments; the photo diode is used for counting the exact number of people present in a stadium at a particular interval of time. As it proceeds from general to specific thus this is an example of deductive method.

5)    BIOLOGY:

a)       This method can best be made use of in the study and understanding of diseases where the symptoms and precautionary measures of various diseases caused by bacteria, virus and other organisms can be explained and children are asked to identify the same on the basis of their understanding.

b)      Classification of animals into chordate and Non-Chordate on the basis of their differences. Since, the differences are general in nature, and the classification as mentioned above is particular in nature, it proceeds from general to particular. Thus this is an example of deductive method.

The examples cited above are not exhaustive. Many more examples can be given and from variety of subjects as well.

Logic and Problem solving are two more areas where these methods find extensive usage.

The major task of logic is to establish a systematic way of deducing the logical consequences of a set of sentences. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary first to identify or characterize the logical consequences of a set of sentences. The procedures for deriving conclusions from a set of sentences then need be examined to verify that all logical consequences and only these are deducible from that set.

From its very beginning, the field of logic has been occupied with arguments, in which certain statements, the premises, are asserted in order to support some other statement, the conclusion. If the premises are intended to provide conclusive support for conclusion, the argument is a deductive one. If the premises are intended to support the conclusion, only to a lesser degree, the argument is called inductive.

A logically correct argument is termed “valid”, while an acceptable inductive argument is called cogent. The notion of support is further elucidated by the observation that the truth of the premises of a valid deductive argument necessitates the truth of the conclusion. It is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. On the other hand, the truth of the premises of a cogent argument confers only a probability of truth on its conclusion: it is possible for the premises to be true but the conclusion is false. For example let the premise is: “All teachers are scholars” and the conclusion be: “There are some scholars who are not teachers”. Let the premise be true then obviously, the conclusion is false. Hence it is a cogent. Again let the premise is “no policeman is a thief” and the conclusion be “no thief is a policeman”. Let the premise be true then the conclusion is also seen to be true. Thus it is a valid (deductive) argument.

Problem solving is another area where inductive and deductive processes may be used.

In inductive thinking, one considers a number of particular or specific items of information to develop more inclusive or general conceptions. After aspirin was synthesized, for example, some people who swallowed the substance reported that it relieved their particular headaches. Through induction the reports of these specific individuals were the basis for developing a more inclusive notion: “aspirin may be helpful in relieving headaches in general”.

“Deduction” is reasoning from general propositions –or hypotheses-to more specific instances or statements. Thus, after the general hypothesis about the effectiveness of aspirin had been put forward, physicians began to apply it to specific, newly encountered headache cases. The deduction was that, if aspirin is generally useful in managing pains in the head, it might also be helpful in easing pains elsewhere in the body.

Although a person may deliberately choose to use induction or deduction, people typically shift from one to the other depending on the exigencies of the reasoning process.

Finally let me compare these two methods.

S.NO

INDUCTIVE METHOD

DEDUCTIVE METHOD

1.

It gives new knowledge

It does not give any new knowledge.

2.

It is a method of discovery.

It is a method of verification.

3.

It is a method of teaching.

It is the method of instruction.

4.

Child acquires first hand knowledge and information by actual observation.

Child gets ready made information and makes use of it.

5.

It is a slow process.

It is quick process.

6.

It trains the mind and gives self confidence and initiative.

It encourages dependence on other sources.

7.

It is full of activity.

There is less scope of activity in it.

8.

It is an upward process of thought and leads to principles.

It is a downward process of thought and leads to useful results.

To conclude, we can say that inductive method is a predecessor of deductive method. Any loss of time due to slowness of this method is made up through the quick and time saving process of deduction. Deduction is a process particularly suitable for a final statement and induction is most suitable for exploration of new fields. Probability in induction is raised to certainty in deduction. The happy combination of the two is most appropriate and desirable.

There are two major parts of the process of learning of a topic: establishment of formula or principles and application of that formula or those principles. The former is the work of induction and the latter is the work of deduction. Therefore, friends, “Always understand inductively and apply deductively” and a good and effective teacher is he who understands this delicate balance between the two. Thus: “his teaching should begin with induction and end in deduction.”